This study determined the relative effectiveness of various warm-up
activities in eliminating postrest warm-up decrement (WUD) in
the tennis serve. 70 highly-skilled players hit 20 serves, rested
for either 5 or 15 minutes, and then attempted 4 final serves.
During the last 2 minutes of the rest period, players continued
to rest, ran in place, engaged in mental imagery, performed practice
swings, or repeatedly hit the ball against the ground and caught
it. Multiple regression procedures revealed that reductions in
WUD were significantly related to the restoration of prerest arousal
levels. Between- group comparisons indicated that practice swings
were the most effective warm-up activity for restoring somatic
and cognitive arousal to prerest levels and for eliminating WUD.
*Aronson, W.R. "Pre-season and pre-match stress levels of
women intercollegiate tennis athletes." MS Thesis. Springfield
College, 1986. Available from Springfield College, Springfield,
MA 01109
Ss for this investigation were 10 members of the Springfield College
Women's Intercollegiate Tennis team. The 3 hypotheses tested in
this investigation were: there would be no significant rank differences
between pre-season stress levels and pre-match stress levels as
indicated by the total score of the SCAT; the correlation coefficient
between pre- season SCAT scores and scores on the NTRP scale would
not be significantly different from zero; the correlation coefficient
between pre-match SCAT scores and scores on the NTRP scale would
not be significantly different from zero. Ss were assigned to
either a pre-season or pre-match group. The Ss in both the pre-season
and the pre-match groups were administered the Sport Competition
Anxiety Test (SCAT). Administration of the pre-season measure
of SCAT occurred before cuts. Administration of the pre-match
measure of SCAT occurred before the team's 10th match. All Ss
were administered the National Tennis Rating Program (NTRP) scale.
The Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test and the Spearman Rank Order Correlation
Coefficient were used to analyze the data. The .05 level of significance
was used throughout this analysis. The 3 conclusions drawn in
this investigation were as follows: there was no significant rank
difference between pre- season stress levels and pre-match stress
levels as indicated by the total score of the SCAT; the correlation
coefficient between pre-season SCAT scores and scores on the NTRP
scale was not significantly different from zero; the correlation
between pre-match SCAT scores and scores on the NTRP scale was
not significantly different from zero.
*Brown, Scott. "Reliability analysis of the USTA Psychological
Performance Inventory." USTA Research Grant, 1990, Information
available from Dr. Scott Brown, Univ. of Connecticut, Storrs,
CT 06268
The author analyzed the USTA Psychological Performance Inventory
and attempted to establish validity and reliability of this instrument.
*Burke, Kevin Lamar. "The effect of a perceptual cognitive
training program on attention/concentration style and performance
of the tennis serve." PhD Diss. Florida State Univ., 1988.
Ann Arbor: UMI, 1989. Order No. 8905735.
The effectiveness of a concentrational training technique in enhancing
attentional skills related to the tennis service and as a means
of reducing sport competition anxiety in advanced tennis players
was investigated. The effects of attentional training on the performance
of a tennis serving accuracy task was also observed. Subjects
were male and female, advanced tennis playing youth and adults
(N = 24, 13-44 years old). Experimental and control group subjects
were pretested and twice posttested on the Tennis-Test of Attention
and Interpersonal Styles (T-TAIS), the Sport Competition Anxiety
Test (SCAT), and a service accuracy task. A concentration training
intervention based on meditational procedures, but made tennis-specific,
was introduced to the experimental group between the first and
second posttest. The intervention was employed for two weeks (28
sessions maximum). It was hypothesized that the experimental group
would significantly improve their concentrational focus skills,
lower their sport competition anxiety, and improve on the serving
task when compared to the control group. Results of 2 x 3 ANOVAs
(2 groups x 3 repeated measures) did not support the hypothesis.
That is, tennis athletes in the experimental condition did not
improve their tennis attentional focus skills, service accuracy,
or lower competitive A-trait when compared to the control group.
An attentional training questionnaire was given to the experimental
tennis subjects to analyze their perceptions of the effectiveness
of the cognitive technique. In conflict with the ANOVA analyses,
75% of the trained subjects reported that the concentration training
technique helped their tennis game. Implications of findings in
this investigation indicate that the proposed benefits of cognitive
attentional training interventions should not be proclaimed or
disclaimed until further research in this area has been performed.
*Butt, Dorcas S., and David N. Cox. "Motivational patterns
in Davis Cup, university and recreational tennis players."
International Journal of Sport Psychology 23.1 (1992): 1-13.
This study examined motivational differences among elite, intermediate,
and recreational male athletes. Fifteen Davis Cup-caliber tennis
players, 16 members of a university tennis team, and 15 recreational
tennis players completed the Sport Protocol. Multiple range tests
yielded significantly different levels of ambition, aggression,
competence, competition, and control among the 3 groups, with
the elite Davis Cup group scoring the highest on all variables.
*Campbell, Richard C. "Standard coaching versus a self-management
package versus team contingencies for improving practice performance
of young tennis players." PhD Diss. Univ. of Manitoba, 1990.
Ann Arbor: UMI, 1992. Order No. NN63279
Self-regulatory procedures (i.e., goal setting, self-monitoring,
self-evaluation, and self-consequation) have been advocated widely
by sport psychologists as interventions for sport problems. Nevertheless,
evidence of their efficacy in sport contexts has been limited
to case studies, exploratory experiments of related interventions,
and a few empirical studies. There is a need for specific research
concerning the applicability of these procedures as interventions
for sport problems. No research has examined private versus public
self-regulation in a sport setting, no research has investigated
the effects of self-regulation procedures on skill performance
at practices, and no research has been reported where self-regulatory
procedures have been used in conjunction with team contingencies.
This research addresses these areas. Two experiments were conducted.
In Experiment 1, 4 male junior tennis players were studied. The
percentage of successful shots in the forehand crosscourt drill,
the backhand crosscourt drill, and the second service drill were
the dependent variables. The independent variables were: (1) the
coaching strategy currently in use, referred to as "standard"
coaching; (2) private goal setting and private self-monitoring
(PGM); (3) team goal setting and posted feedback (TGF); and (4)
mastery criterion and a group contingency (MC). A reversal (ABCDA)
design was used with a replication of the best treatment. The
results indicated that the PGM procedure and the TGF procedure
had no beneficial effect. In contrast, the MC procedure increased
the subjects' skill performance. Also, social validity data indicated
that the subjects and coaches preferred MC. The results obtained
in Experiment 1 concerning the MC procedure were limited by the
small number of data points collected during the MC phase and
by the possibility of sequential treatment interference. Consequently,
a second experiment, similar in many respects to Experiment 1,
was conducted. The independent variable was MC, studied in an
ABA design with "standard" coaching as the baseline
(A) condition. The results replicated the beneficial effect of
MC observed in Experiment 1. Furthermore, the subjects and coaches
preferred the MC procedure again. The present research has several
implications. First, the MC procedure is a practical, efficient
strategy for tennis coaches faced with high practice/competition
ratios. Second, the procedure has practical implications for similar
sports with high practice/competition ratios. Third, the failure
of the PGM procedure implies that private self-regulation procedures
are not effective and, therefore, may not be suitable as interventions
in sport settings. Fourth, the failure of TGF is contrary to previous
reports that self-regulation procedures with a public component
are effective strategies for increasing performance.
*Choboy, Jon A. "Influence of mental imagery on tennis service
accuracy of intermediate level tennis players." MS Thesis.
Springfield College, 1992. Available from Microform Publications,
1243 Univ. of Oregon, Eugene, OR 97403. Order No. PSY1700.
*Collins, Steven W. "The role of anger among male college
level tennis players." PhD Diss. Univ. of Southern Mississippi,
1990. Ann Arbor: UMI, 1991. Order No. 9120345
The research was designed to investigate the relationship between
self-reported state and trait levels of anger, and winning percentage,
among college tennis players during match play. The study also
investigated the head coach's perceptions of the players' anger,
as well as their ability to play up to potential during a match.
Finally, the study attempted to investigate the effects of anger
control workshops on reducing anger. At the beginning of the tennis
season, players were administered a demographic questionnaire
and the State Trait Anger Expression inventory (STAXI: Spielberger,
1988). Players were then asked to complete the state anger subscale
of the STAXI following each set of tennis that they played. Also,
the head coach was asked to complete seven-point Likert scales
which measured his perception of each player's level of anger
and "playing to potential" for each match. Finally,
the players were randomly assigned to experimental and control
groups. The experimental group began a series of four anger control
workshops, whereas the control group continued play without intervention.
Correlations were calculated between the trait anger variables
and the averaged state anger variable, and match winning percentage
over the first five matches. Results showed a significant negative
relationship between state anger and winning percentage, whereas
the trait scales had weaker relationships with winning percentage.
However, due to the small sample size, interpretations of the
relationships were made with caution. Unfortunately, the effects
of the anger control intervention could not be tested due to attrition
in the control group, as well as large pre-intervention differences
between the experimental and control groups. Suggestions were
made concerning future research employing college tennis teams.
*Daino, Antonio. "Personality traits of adolescent tennis
players." International Journal of Sport Psychology 16.2
(1985): 120-25.
In this study, 39 male and 30 female competitive tennis players
(TPLs) ages 13-18 years and 36 male and 30 female age-matched
controls who were nonparticipants in sports were administered
the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire, the Middlesex Hospital
Questionnaire, and a will-to-win questionnaire. Findings revealed
significant differences in personality traits between the 2 groups.
Findings also fail to support the hypothesis that sports participants
are more tough-minded, dominant, aggressive, and hostile than
nonparticipants.
*Davis, Ken. "Performance enhancement program for a college
tennis player." International Journal of Sport Psychology
22.2 (1991): 140-53.
This study outlined the development, implementation, and evaluation
of a performance enhancement program for an 18- year-old female
college tennis player. Baseline data were collected, goals were
set to enhance performance of tennis and mental skills, and an
8-week program was devised to meet the goals. The S met regularly
with the researcher for imagery sessions and discussions about
the processes established for performance enhancement. Psychological
goals were improving concentration, coping with negative thoughts,
establishing a controlled pre-game preparation, and becoming energized
when tired. Satisfactory progress was made on 4 of 5 performance
areas and 3 of the 4 psychological goals.
*Davis, Kenneth Harold. "An interpretive study of post performance
stress in tennis players." PhD Diss. Florida State Univ.,
1990. Ann Arbor: UMI, 1990. Order No. 9024092.
The first phase of this study utilized a questionnaire to determine
the type, intensity, and duration of negative emotional reaction
following a disappointing performance in tennis (post performance
stress--PPS). Also investigated were the reasons for disappointment,
the effects of PPS on subsequent performance, the similarities
of PPS to other life stresses, and specific cognitions or behaviors
that assisted in the recovery process. Gaining direction from
Phase one, the second phase involved a 6 month interpretive study
of PPS in high school tennis players. Players were observed and
interviewed during practice, high school matches, and tournament
play. During the latter part of the study, parents of the players
were interviewed. The use of multiple sites, sources, and methods
provided the opportunity to use triangulation to enhance the validity
of the findings. Analyses of the data were ongoing and produced
eleven assertions in Phase two. For each assertion a search for
disconfirming evidence was undertaken and either explained or
used to modify the original assertion. The conclusions in Phase
one were written as six assertions so that level two assertions
could be developed through a synthesis of Phase one and two results.
Level two assertions were used to develop a model for recovery
from PPS. Such a step corresponded to a third level of analysis.
The results indicated that PPS is typically manifest in initial
anger, followed by shame, and depression. Evaluation of performance
is a necessary prerequisite for recovery but should not occur
until a "cone of silence" has been observed. Cognitive
and behavioral recovery strategies included mind absorption, rationalization,
identification of positives, the use of external, and internal
controllable attributions, and the development of a plan that
involved future success experiences. Several hindrances to recovery
were identified.
*Daw, Jessica, and Damon Burton. "Evaluation of a comprehensive
psychological skills training program for collegiate tennis players."
Sport Psychologist 8.1 (1994): 37-57.
This study examined the impact of a comprehensive psychological
skills training for tennis (PSTT) program on 12 collegiate tennis
players. PSTT players were exposed to 3 psychological skills (goal
setting, imagery, and arousal regulation) and then given the opportunity
to develop individualized PSTT programs. Results indicated that
the PSTT program was successful with case studies providing strong
support for the effectiveness of individual PSTT programs. Intrateam
results reveal that all PSTT Ss felt their PSTT program helped
their tennis games, although high- and low- commitment Ss differed
significantly on only 2 of 15 psychological and performance variables.
*DeFrancesco, Charmaine, and Laura Blitzer. "An examination
of three instructional formats used to train junior tennis players
in psychological performance strategies." USTA Research Grant,
1993. Information available from Drs. Charmaine DeFrancesco and
Laura Blitzer, Florida International Univ., Miami, FL 33199
The authors conducted investigations that examine the use of instructional
techniques and formats that facilitate the development of cognitive
and psychological processes associated with successful tennis
players. Specifically, a combined training appraoch was used to
determine the effectiveness of training young athletes (1) individually,
(2) in small groups, or (3) in a workshop format to use performance
strategies. This study used a system approach to performance strategy
training since coaches and parents were also involved in the training.
*Dube, Samir K., and Sherman J. Tatz. "Audience effects in
tennis performance." Perceptual and Motor Skills 73.3 Part
1 (1991): 844-46.
This study compared the effects of early or later exposure to
an audience on tennis pupils' performance. Sixteen pairs of players
aged 9-14 years were observed with and without an audience, and
their performance was related to their stage of development. An
audience generally improved performance (good shots, mean rally
length, good shots per rally) in more-skilled Ss but impaired
performance in less-skilled Ss.
*Ebbeck, Vicki. "Self-perception and motivational characteristics
of tennis participants: the influence of age and skill."
PhD Diss. Univ. of Oregon, 1990. Ann Arbor: UMI, 1991. Order No.
9111106.
An integrated research approach to the study of motivation was
adopted by incorporating variables from sport psychology, motor
development, and motor learning/control subdisciplines. Specifically,
the relationship of age and skill with self-perceptions and motivational
characteristics of tennis participants was examined. Males and
females ($N$ = 240) ranged in age from 10 to 67 years. Professional
tennis coaches verified the skill rating of each player using
the National Tennis Rating Program introduced by the United States
Tennis Association. Individuals completed self-report scales measuring
global self-worth, perceived tennis competence, tennis salience,
intrinsic motivation, challenge motivational orientation, norm-
and self-referenced conceptions of ability, causal attributions
for success and failure, criteria for self-ability judgments,
and competitive trait anxiety. Canonical correlation analyses
revealed that the set of age and skill variables was significantly
related to the set of psychosocial variables for both males and
females. For males, age was positively associated with intrinsic
motivation and controllable attributions for successful outcomes;
but negatively associated with tennis salience, competitive trait
anxiety, and norm-referenced conceptions of ability. Increases
in skill were associated with higher ratings of tennis salience,
perceived tennis competence, global self-worth, preference for
challenging tasks, intrinsic motivation, and internal and controllable
attributions for success. For females, higher skill level was
associated with increases in perceived tennis competence, intrinsic
motivation, preference for challenging tasks, and tennis salience.
Older, as compared to younger, females were lower in tennis salience,
competitive trait anxiety, preference for challenging tasks, as
well as norm- and self-referenced conceptions of ability. The
percentage of variance explained in the psychosocial variables
by age and skill was 27% and 44% for males and females, respectively.
These findings suggest that an integrated research approach can
extend our understanding of social-psychological variables in
the physical-activity setting.
*Edinger, Jack D., et al. "Daytime functioning and nighttime
sleep before, during, and after a 146-hour tennis match."
Sleep 13 (1990): 526-32.
Two fit males aged 31 and 35 were studied while they participated
in a week-long marathon tennis match under conditions of extreme
sleep restriction (4-5 hour reductions per night). Despite undergoing
marked sleep restriction, both Ss continued to obtain their usual
(baseline) amounts of slow wave sleep throughout the marathon.
Also, both Ss showed a pre- to post-match decline in memory and
perceptual/motor coding. However, Ss differed markedly in their
ratings of sleepiness, mood ratings, recovery sleep patterns,
and endurance with respect to the demands of the match.
*Gold, Ginger Lee. "Achievement orientation, self-confidence,
and attributions of female collegiate tennis players: a case study."
EdD Diss. Univ. of North Carolina, Greensboro, 1989. Ann Arbor:
UMI, 1990. Order No. 9020157.
The purpose of this study was to investigate the achievement orientation,
self-confidence, and attributions of five female collegiate varsity
tennis players ages 18-22. Changes in these constructs were described
and their interrelationships were explored over a single competitive
tennis season. Quantitative and qualitative measures, including
questionnaires, interviews and journals were used to assess achievement
orientation, self-confidence, and attributions. The results were
integrated to develop player motivation profiles. Results indicated
that: (a) the players were stable in their levels of achievement
orientation from match to match, irrespective of confidence level,
(b) each player's achievement orientation had different characteristics,
(c) athletes' pre-match expectations were higher for events they
won, (d) following matches which they won, athletes tended to
have lower expectations for winning the next match, and (e) substantial
increases and decreases in expectancy to win and play well were
observed between matches. Finally, the advantages of using a ideographic
design to study fluctuations in athletes' motivation was underscored.
*Gondola, Joan C., and Emily Wughalter. "The personality
characteristics of internationally ranked female tennis players
as measured by the Cattell 16 PF." Perceptual and Motor Skills
73.3 Part 1 (1991): 987-92.
Sixteen internationally ranked female professional tennis players
were administered the Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire
(16PF). When age was controlled for (<27 years vs. >27 years),
younger players were significantly more intelligent and experimental
than the older group. Controlling for rank yielded no significant
results. Compared with norms for the general female population,
the tennis players were significantly more reserved, more intelligent,
more suspicious, and less pretentious.
*Gould, Daniel. "Burnout in competitive junior tennis players."
USTA Research Grant, 1992. Information available from Dr. Daniel
Gould, Univ. of North Carolina, Greensboro, NC 27412
The author identified and described cases of self-defined junior
tennis burnout, including the following: personal characteristics
and motivation orientations; situational demands of burnout; and
the cognitive, psysiological, and behavioral consequences of burnout.
Recommendations for preventing burnout were made.
*Goulet, Claude, Chantal Bard, and Michelle Fleury. "Expertise
differences in preparing to return a tennis serve: a visual information
processing approach." Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology
11.4 (1989): 382-98.
This study analyzed the performance of 25 adult expert (ETPs)
and 24 undergraduate novice tennis players (NTPs) in identifying
types of serves. In Experiment 1, visual search patterns were
investigated. During the ritual phase (RPH), ETPs focused on the
shoulder/trunk areas whereas NTPs concentrated on the head of
the server. During the execution phase (EPH), ETPs concentrated
on the racquet whereas NTPs used more cues. Using temporal visual
occlusion, the speed and accuracy of decisional processes were
investigated in Experiment 2. ETPs seemed to select valuable information
during the preparatory phase and during the first part of the
EPH. NTPs must see the RPH until ball/racquet impact to be as
accurate. Results emphasize the importance of combining sampling
of eye movement and behavior parameters to better understand the
perceptual processes underlying motor sport performance.
*Green, Elinore. "Role of the father in female athletic achievement."
PhD Diss. The Wright Institute, 1982. Ann Arbor: UMI, 1983. Order
No. 8305600.
This research uses a representative case study design to explore
the father-daughter relationships of four outstanding female athletes.
Four subjects were selected from a larger sample (N = 74) on the
basis of their scores on four dimensions (loving, rejecting, casual,
demanding) of the PCR II (Siegelman & Roe, 1979). They were
chosen to represent extremes of paternal behaviors categorized
as loving and casual, rejecting and casual, rejecting and demanding,
and loving and demanding. Semi-structured interviews, conducted
with these subjects, revealed substantial similarities among the
types. Each was markedly influenced to initiate and maintain a
commitment to athletic achievement by a father who approved of
his daughter's endeavors. Furthermore, all four participants internalized
certain paternal attributes which enabled them to succeed in sports.
These requirements include a love of sport, an exacting superego,
and high needs for achievement and autonomy. An analysis of the
athletic participation of all four women show that, while sports
were used initially to strengthen a relationship with the father,
the activities later took on an intrinsic value that served needs
for achievement, autonomy and mastery, and that permitted the
relatively safe expression of aggression. In all but one case,
sport was successfully used to resolve a significant and pervasive
conflict engendered in the father-daughter relationship. The participant
whose father was perceived to be the most rejecting and demanding
is the exception. This woman remains intensely conflicted toward
both her father and tennis, the sole basis of their troubled relationship.
Because her father was so intrusive, exploitive, and narcissistically-invested
in her activities, the opportunity for self-regulation and independent
functioning was eradicated. In contrast, the autonomy of the other
three women was promoted through their involvement in sport. Despite
vast differences in parenting styles, none of these fathers had
attempted to control the athletic participation of their motorically-gifted
daughters.
*Greenwood, C. Michael, David A. Dzewaltowski, and Ron French.
"Self-efficacy and psychological well-being of wheelchair
tennis participants and wheelchair nontennis participants."
Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly 7.1 (1990): 12-21.
This study investigated the relationships among sport participation,
self-efficacy, and psychological well-being in 127 wheelchair-mobile
(WM) individuals. Eighty-seven WM competitive tennis players (TPs)
and 40 WM nonparticipants (NPs) in sports or exercise completed
self-efficacy scales and the Profile of Mood States. TPs were
more positive in mood than NPs, who displayed high levels of anger
and fatigue. Compared with NPs, TPs were more confident about
their capability to perform tennis skills and general wheelchair
mobility tasks.
*Hedrick, Bradley Noble. "The effect of wheelchair tennis
participation and mainstreaming upon the perceptions of competence
of physically disabled adolescents." PhD Diss. Univ. of Illinois
at Urbana-Champaign, 1984. Ann Arbor: UMI, 1984. Order No. 8409778.
Fifteen disabled participants in a youth sports program were randomly
assigned to three tennis treatment groups receiving eight skill
learning sessions and four doubles performance sessions. The presence
of nondisabled coactors varied by group and treatment stage. A
local school district provided five disabled subjects for a control
group. A control group of five nondisabled subjects received the
treatment without disabled coactors. The homogeneity of the groups
regarding age and sex was assessed. The subjects were pretested
regarding tennis skill, tennis efficacy and their perceived general,
cognitive, social and physical competence. The disabled were also
pretested regarding their perceptions of their nondisabled peers'
tennis efficacy and their general, cognitive, social and physical
competence. The nondisabled were similarly tested regarding their
perceptions of their disabled peers competence. All treatment
groups were retested regarding these variables following the learning
sessions and following the performance sessions. The disabled
subjects' level of anxiety was assessed during the learning and
performance stages. The proportion of successful behaviors attempted
the disabled throughout the treatment was recorded. Results revealed
that wheelchair tennis participation significantly improved the
disabled subjects' perceptions of their physical competence. Nondisabled
coactors incited a significantly higher level of anxiety within
disabled participants than disabled coactors. This excessive anxiety
was likely the result of the disabled subjects' enhanced expectancy
of negative appraisal by the nondisabled coactors, precipitated
by the significant skill differential between the disabled and
nondisabled subjects. The presence of nondisabled coactors was
associated with a less (though not significantly less) successful
behavioral performance level by the disabled. Disabled subjects
in the integrated learning sessions experienced less positive
change in their tennis efficacy perceptions than those in the
segregated sessions. Integrated learning sessions were less conducive
to positive change in perceptions of the nondisabled regarding
the tennis competence of their disabled peers than segregated
learning sessions. Thus, mainstreamed sport settings appear less
favorable when the disabled are significantly less skilled than
their nondisabled coactors. The implication of this is that for
mainstreaming to be maximally effective, programmers must give
primary attention to the subject's skill level as a criterion
for grouping.
*Hennemann, Marie-Claude, and Dominique Keller. "Preparatory
behavior in the execution of a sport-related movement: the return
of service in tennis." International Journal of Sport Psychology
14.3 (1983): 149-61.
This study analyzed the preparatory behavior of 2 tennis players
on return of service based on 230 ordinary services that were
filmed in sequence. Frame-by-frame analysis of the film resulted
in a detailed description of the basic movement sequences of server
and receiver. The point at which the receiver's preparatory phase
was initiated in the chronology of the server's movements depended
on the receiver's skill as a player.
*Holcombe, Robert Andrew. "The effects of auditory biofeedback
on the accuracy of the tennis volley." MS Thesis. Brigham
Young Univ., 1991. Available from Microform Publications, 1243
Univ. of Oregon, Eugene, OR 97403. Order No. PSY1709.
*Johnston, Thomas Marion. "The effects of verbal labeling
on the performance of the forehand groundstroke in tennis."
MS Thesis. California State Univ., Fullerton, 1991. Ann Arbor:
UMI, 1991. Order No. MA1343973.
The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of verbal
labeling on a complex motor skill. Thirty-six females and twenty-four
males of varying skill levels between the ages of 30 and 60 were
randomly assigned to three experimental groups. The subjects were
instructed to say a specific word upon hitting a tennis forehand
groundstroke from balls delivered by an automatic ball machine.
One group was told to say the word "over" at the moment
of execution while another group was instructed to say "ball"
while contacting the ball. The third group was the control group
and was only told the goal of the experiment, to hit the ball
into the singles court. All three groups were told the goal prior
to the task. The results were not statistically significant, however,
there were trends indicating that the "ball group produced
fewer errors than either of the other groups on all dependent
measures.
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