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*Heath, Kathleen Frances. "A study of sex role, sex differences,
locus of control, and expectancy of success in tennis among college
students." PhD Diss. Univ. of Oregon, 1982. Ann Arbor: UMI,
1982. Order No. 8215304.
The focus of this study was on the analysis of sex differences
with respect to expectancy of success, actual performance, accuracy
of prediction, and attribution of performance in tennis skills
against the theoretical background of sex roles and locus of control.
College students in beginning tennis activity classes were asked
to estimate their scores on two tennis skill tests and to make
causal attributions about their actual performance. A discriminant
analysis revealed significant differences between males and females
using the mean vector of the variables associated with tennis
performance. The variables which contributed most to the separation
of males and females were the scores on the tennis tests and the
Bem Androgyny and Femininity scores. Males estimated higher scores,
performed at a higher level and attributed their results more
to skill than females did. Females attributed their performance
more to effort than males did. These differences seemed to follow
stereotypic behavior for the sexes. Discriminant analysis did
not indicate a significant separation of students classified as
masculine, feminine, androgynous or undifferentiated on Bem's
Sex Role Inventory. Univariate analyses identified three variables
in which there were significant differences between the sex role
groups: estimation of performance, performance on a tennis test
and attribution to skill. Masculine and androgynous subjects estimated
higher scores and performed better on both of these tests than
the other two sex role groups. Masculine subjects attributed the
performance more in terms of skill than the other groups. A discriminant
analysis of the same variables with subjects identified as internal
or external on Rotter's Internal External Locus of Control Scale
did not yield a significant discriminant function. In the univariate
analysis, however internals scored higher on both skill tests
and found these tasks to be easier than externals. Thus the study
confirmed several of the psychological findings of previous research
by using a motoric skill task in a field setting.
*Hedrick, Bradley Noble. The effect of wheelchair tennis participation
and mainstreaming upon the perceptions of competence of physically
disabled adolescents. PhD Diss. Univ. of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign,
1984. Ann Arbor: UMI, 1984. Order No. 8409778.
Fifteen disabled participants in a youth sports program were randomly
assigned to three tennis treatment groups receiving eight skill
learning sessions and four doubles performance sessions. The presence
of nondisabled coactors varied by group and treatment stage. A
local school district provided five disabled subjects for a control
group. A control group of five nondisabled subjects received the
treatment without disabled coactors. The homogeneity of the groups
regarding age and sex was assessed. The subjects were pretested
regarding tennis skill, tennis efficacy and their perceived general,
cognitive, social and physical competence. The disabled were also
pretested regarding their perceptions of their nondisabled peers'
tennis efficacy and their general, cognitive, social and physical
competence. The nondisabled were similarly tested regarding their
perceptions of their disabled peers competence. All treatment
groups were retested regarding these variables following the learning
sessions and following the performance sessions. The disabled
subjects' level of anxiety was assessed during the learning and
performance stages. The proportion of successful behaviors attempted
the disabled throughout the treatment was recorded. Results revealed
that wheelchair tennis participation significantly improved the
disabled subjects' perceptions of their physical competence. Nondisabled
coactors incited a significantly higher level of anxiety within
disabled participants than disabled coactors. This excessive anxiety
was likely the result of the disabled subjects' enhanced expectancy
of negative appraisal by the nondisabled coactors, precipitated
by the significant skill differential between the disabled and
nondisabled subjects. The presence of nondisabled coactors was
associated with a less (though not significantly less) successful
behavioral performance level by the disabled. Disabled subjects
in the integrated learning sessions experienced less positive
change in their tennis efficacy perceptions than those in the
segregated sessions. Integrated learning sessions were less conducive
to positive change in perceptions of the nondisabled regarding
the tennis competence of their disabled peers than segregated
learning sessions. Thus, mainstreamed sport settings appear less
favorable when the disabled are significantly less skilled than
their nondisabled coactors. The implication of this is that for
mainstreaming to be maximally effective, programmers must give
primary attention to the subject's skill level as a criterion
for grouping.
*Hensley, Larry, editor. "Tennis for boys and girls skills
test manual." 1989. ERIC Document No. 313366. Available from
American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and
Dance Publications, 1900 Association Drive, Reston, VA 22091.
This manual provides an overview for the game of tennis; a brief
history of the background of skill testing in tennis; tests for
ground strokes, serve and volley; and scoring rules. The use of
norms is explained and tables list percentile and T-score norm
tables for males and females in grades nine to college. Detailed
descriptions of tennis drills for the basic ground strokes, serve,
and volley are included. References are included and appendices
contain the AAHPERD tennis skills tests and rating scales.
*Hewitt, Jay, and Steven Jackson. "Differential attributions
for win-loss in competitive tennis." Perceptual and Motor
Skills 63.2 Part 2 (1986): 970.
In this study, 20 high school varsity tennis players rated the
extent to which 5 factors (skill, hustle, off-day, bad conditions,
and luck) contributed to a personal win and a personal loss. Outcome
was a significant factor only for the off-day and hustle factors.
*Isaacs, Larry D., and Alfred E. Finch. "Anticipatory timing
of beginning and intermediate tennis players." Perceptual
and Motor Skills 57.2 (1983): 451-54.
This study examined differences in beginning and intermediate
tennis players' ability to anticipate the placement of the tennis
serve under restricted viewing conditions. Thirty-four beginning
and 16 intermediate players were required to view film clips that
showed a player serving. Longer viewing times significantly improved
a players' ability to predict the terminal location of the ball.
*Johnson, Ben. "A biomechanic analysis of the ground forces
during the tennis serve and selected jumps of competitive junior
and adult players." USTA Research Grant, 1990. Information
available from Dr. Ben Johnson, Georgia State Univ., Atlanta,
GA 30303
The author examined the importance of ground reaction forces as
created by total body accelerations (via muscle contractions)
and body weight on the execution of the tennis serve.
*Johnston, Thomas Marion. The effects of verbal labeling on the
performance of the forehand groundstroke in tennis. MS Thesis.
California State Univ., Fullerton, 1991. Ann Arbor: UMI, 1991.
Order No. MA1343973.
The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of verbal
labeling on a complex motor skill. Thirty-six females and twenty-four
males of varying skill levels between the ages of 30 and 60 were
randomly assigned to three experimental groups. The subjects were
instructed to say a specific word upon hitting a tennis forehand
groundstroke from balls delivered by an automatic ball machine.
One group was told to say the word "over" at the moment
of execution while another group was instructed to say "ball"
while contacting the ball. The third group was the control group
and was only told the goal of the experiment, to hit the ball
into the singles court. All three groups were told the goal prior
to the task. The results were not statistically significant, however,
there were trends indicating that the "ball group produced
fewer errors than either of the other groups on all dependent
measures.
*Kerns, Mary-Margaret. "The effectiveness of computer-assisted
instruction in teaching tennis rules and strategies." MS
Thesis.
Penn State Univ., 1986. Available from Penn State Univ., State
College, PA 16802
Ss were enrolled in 2 beginning tennis classes which met 3 times/week
for 8 weeks. The control group received instruction of tennis
rules and strategies by traditional means. The experimental group
received no instruction on tennis rules and strategies during
the regular class periods, but for 2 scheduled class meetings
interacted with the computer-assisted instruction tutorials designed
by the investigator. The following conclusions are indicated:
both groups learned tennis rules and strategies significantly
in the time period from the pretest to the posttest; the learning
performance for both groups on the retest was significantly different
from the pretest administration; the learning performance of both
groups was not significantly different from the posttest to the
retest; and on all 3 testing occasions, there was not a significant
difference between the performance of the traditionally instructed
group and that of the computer-assisted instruction group.
*Knudson, Duane. "Effect of string tension on ball rebound
accuracy in center and off-center tennis impacts." USTA Research
Grant, 1992. Information available from Dr. Duane Knudson, Baylor
Univ., Waco, TX 76798
The author extended his research on the effect of string tension
on ball rebound accuracy to oversized tennis racquets and examined
the effect of impact location on ball rebound accuracy in oversized
tennis racquets.
*Knudson, Duane. "Effect of string type and tension on rebound
accuracy in static tennis impacts." USTA Research Grant,
1990. Information available from Dr. Duane Knudson, Baylor Univ.,
Waco, TX 76798
The author studied various string types and tensions to determine
which offer the best ball control and accuracy. The author was
especially interested to see if lower string tensions actually
allow for more accurate rebounds than higher string tensions.
*Knudson, Duane Victor. An analysis of grip forces and three-dimensional
accelerations in the tennis forehand drive. PhD Diss. Univ. of
Wisconsin, Madison, 1988. Ann Arbor: UMI, 1989. Order No. 8901172.
Two experiments were conducted to establish the variability of
two forces on the hand in a typical tennis forehand drive, and
to relate these forces to biomechanical variables indicative of
impact effectiveness. In Experiment One the force at two positions
on the hands of seven skilled players performing flat forehand
drives were analyzed using conductive elastomer sensors on a midsized
racket. "Gripping" forces were recorded on the proximal
hypothenar eminence, and post impact peak forces (TPK) were recorded
at the top of the hand (base of the index finger). The magnitudes
of pre impact hypothenar forces demonstrated intra subject consistency
(Mean CV = 27%). Four subjects utilized forces on the hand above
a proposed definition of grip "firmness" in preparation
for impact. The largest intra subject variability (Mean CV = 69%)
was observed in TPK, ranging from 4 to 309 N. Patterns of the
two forces near impact ($\pm$100 ms) were consistent and inversely
related. All subjects exhibited increasing hypothenar forces and
decreasing forces at the top of the hand 50 ms prior to impact.
The force of impact decreased the hypothenar force and increased
the force on the top of the hand. In Experiment Two three dimensional
cinematography, force sensors, and strain gage data were used
to analyze the interaction of hand forces and impact kinematics
of the racket and upper extremity. A control subject performed
fifteen trials, while an experimental subject performed eight
normal trials and eight trials with a significantly firmer grip.
Linear accelerations of the racket and upper extremity were most
consistent in the direction of the stroke, followed by vertical
and lateral accelerations. Wrist angular acceleration curves and
peak magnitudes were similar across impact and grip force conditions.
Hypothenar forces did not significantly influence TPK, impact
coefficient of restitution, peak linear acceleration of the racket,
and wrist angular acceleration at impact. The increased hypothenar
forces in the firm grip trials exhibited significantly (p $<$.01)
larger negative accelerations of the hand after central impacts.
TPK was significantly (p $<$.01) related to transverse impact
location and the top force at impact.
*Knudson, Duane, and John Blackwell. "Impact loading and
wrist extensor stretch in the tennis one-handed backhand."
USTA Research Grant, 1993. Information available from Dr. Duane
Knudson, Baylor Univ., Waco, TX 76798
The authors measured the impulsive loads for central impacts in
one-handed backhands of advanced and intermediate tennis players.
The peak acceleration of the center of gravity of the racket was
measured and compared across skill level. The study also measured
the wrist and elbow angular accelerations after impact in the
one-handed backhand for the same skill levels. The interaction
of these two factors was also studied.
*Marcal, Haroldo. Simplification of TNT (Talent-N-Timing) Test
for College Students. PhD Diss. Univ. of Toledo, 1982. Ann Arbor:
UMI, 1983. Order No. 8227815.
The purpose of this study was to develop a amplification of the
TNT test to solve the problem of test administration to the large
college classes. The data for this investigation were obtained
from 20 beginner, 20 intermediate, and 20 advanced tennis players,
both male and female, who were students enrolled at The University
of Toledo, Ohio during the Summer of 1981. The ability level of
each subject was determined according to the TNT test scores.
The test was administered according to the TNT procedures under
the direction of the instructor of the classes. The stepwise multiple
regression and item selection technique was used to select items
used for the simplification of this test. Discriminant analysis
of these items was computed to determine the percent of proper
placements for beginner, intermediate, and advanced player levels.
The TNT total score can be predicted by the total backhand score
(R = .919) and a sub analysis indicated that total backhand can
be predicted by backhand ground strokes power and control scores
(R = .997). Therefore, the TNT simplification is the sum of the
backhand ground strokes power and control scores with the following
classification table: Beginner = 0 25 points Intermediate = 26
40 Points Advanced = 41 80 Points
Discriminant analysis indicated that this prediction process produced
no errors in placement.
*McCullagh, Penny. "Testing the effectiveness of Sybervision
on the learning of the tennis serve." USTA Research Grant,
1990. Information available from Dr. Penny McCullagh, Univ. of
Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309
The author studied the manner in which adults learn skills from
various instructional techniques to determine the effectiveness
of using Sybervision videotapes to enhance skilled performance.
*McLennan, James Patrick. "The effects of biomechanical feedback
on the tennis serve." MA Thesis. Univ. of West Florida, 1991.
Available from Univ. of West Florida, Pensacola, FL 32514
This eight subject pilot study tested the hypothesis that biomechanical
feedback would improve subjective and objective performance of
the tennis serve. The electromechanical measurement of racquet
head momentum generated the biomechanical feedback that shapes
performance of the tennis serve.
A miniature accelerometer, mounted to the racquet throat, measured
the swinging momentum of the racquet, and activated a whistle
at the moment of greatest racquet head speed. Pretest and posttest
performance measurements included a self report inventory and
a coefficient derived from the accuracy and velocity of the serve.
The experimental results were equivocal. The self report assessments
of serving effectiveness showed marked improvement, whereas the
accuracy velocity coefficient did not. Electromechanical feedback
provided unusual information about the sequencing and rhythm of
the tennis serve. Subsequent biomechanical feedback inquiries
within tennis motor learning were recommended.
*McNally, B.J. "A comparison of groundstroke performance
using a bent handle tennis racquet and a straight handle tennis
racquet." MS Thesis. Washington State Univ., 1984. Available
from Washington State Univ., Pullman, WA 99163
This study was designed to determine if advanced or advanced intermediate
level tennis players could hit groundstrokes as well with a bent
handle tennis racquet as with a straight handle tennis racquet.
Ss consisted of members of the advanced tennis classes at washington
State Univ. and 5 players subjectively determined by the author
to be advanced level players. The results were analyzed using
ANOVA and Duncan's multiple range test. A significant difference
was found between the bent handle racquet and the straight handle
racquet at the p=.05 level. The straight handle racquet (M=72.95)
produced better results than the bent handle racquet (M=66.77)
in both the forehand and backhand groundstrokes. 78% of the Ss
who indicated a racquet preference in a subjective rating questionnaire
chose the straight handle racquet.
*McPherson, Sue. "The relationship between knowledge structure
and visual information processing in tennis: what does an expert
see?" USTA Research Grant, 1990. Information available from
Sue McPherson, Univ. of Oklahoma, Norman, OK 73019
The author examined the relationship between knowledge structure
and visual information processing in collegiate expert and novice
tennis players. The study included the influence of observing
opponents in order to predict the proper response for a return.
*McPherson, Sue Lynn. The development of children's expertise
in tennis: knowledge structure and sport performance. PhD Diss.
Louisiana State Univ. and Agricultural and Mechanical College,
1987. Ann Arbor: UMI, 1988. Order No. 8728205.
This research examined children's development of knowledge structure
and sport performance in tennis. A knowledge test was designed
to measure declarative knowledge and a serve and groundstroke
skill test were developed to measure skill. An observational instrument
was designed to record the components of performance for the serve
(decision and execution) and game play following the serve (control,
decision and execution).
Phase 1 compared expert and novice tennis players within two age
levels, 10 11 years old and 12 13 years old, on the individual
components of tennis performance and on measures of tennis knowledge,
serve skill, and groundstroke skill. Experts regardless of age
performed better than novices on tennis skill and knowledge; experts'
decisions and actions were better during tennis game performance.
Declarative knowledge was related to the development of procedural
knowledge, whereas serve and groundstroke skill were related to
the motor execution components of performance. In phase 2 verbal
reports were used to assess the bases of decisions during game
play. Point (during game play) and situation (after game play)
interviews were used. The results were based on two measures of
knowledge structure, i.e., what was stored (the total number,
the variety, and the characteristics of concepts within condition,
action, and goal concepts), and how it was stored (the number
of connections between concepts and the linkages across and within
condition, action and goal concepts). Experts as compared to novices,
focused on higher level concepts, had more interconnections among
these concepts, and had available a wider variety of condition
and action concepts that were important to the goal structure
of the game. Overall, the experts' greater decision making ability
during game play was directly related to their knowledge structure.
*Messick, Jo Ann. The prelongitudinal screening of hypothesized
developmental sequences for the tennis serve and the effect of
sex, experience, and age on the developmental level. EdD Diss.
Univ. of North Carolina, 1987. Ann Arbor: UMI, 1989. Order No.
8816352.
Sixty males and females, ages 9-19 and experienced in tennis,
were videotaped executing an overhead tennis serve. The videotapes
were analyzed by 2 expert judges to determine the presence of
hypothesized sequences in 6 body components. Longitudinal study
of 3 components was supported. Some sex, experience and age differences
were noted. The results of the linear discriminant analysis indicated
that age and sex together, but not experience, were accurate predictors
of developmental skill level in one component.
*Miller, Glenn, and Carl Gabbard. "Effects of visual aids
on acquisition of selected tennis skills." Perceptual Motor
Skills 67.2 (1988): 603-06.
This study compared the effects of supplemental visual aids on
the acquisition of selected tennis skills. The forehand and backhand
drive placement tests of a tennis achievement test were used to
pretest, midtest, and posttest 55 undergraduates who were assigned
to 1 of 3 treatments: control (instructor's verbal feedback only),
videotaped replay viewing (with instructor's feedback), and loop-film
viewing (modeling, with instructor's feedback). Each S received
1200 minutes of instruction. Results show no significant differences
among groups; however, empirical evidence suggested that the use
of videotaped replay and loop-film technique has merit and might
be given consideration for use in instructional settings.
*Mitchell, Daphne. A study of declarative knowledge in tennis
comparing experts and novices. MSc Thesis. Univ. of Waterloo (Canada),
1992. Ann Arbor: UMI, 1993. Order No. MAMM75662.
This study was designed to examine declarative knowledge of tennis
in expert and novice tennis players. The instrument used was a
questionnaire measuring general tennis knowledge, stroke execution
(Annett, 1985), strategy and tactics, rules, definitions, written
knowledge of strokes, and a picture arrangement and recognition
task (Carroll and Bandura, 1985, 1987). The questions were either
in the form of true/false, short answer or open-ended. The true/false
questions also required the subjects to rate the confidence of
their response. Five different groups were tested; coaches (n=5),
expert players (n=13), intermediates (n=13), beginners (n=10)
and non-players (n=6).
The results indicated expert/novice differences for all types
of declarative knowledge tested, except for the picture arrangement
and recognition tests. The confidence ratings indicate that coaches,
expert players and intermediates were more confident in their
answers than beginners and non-players. It was also found that
all groups were more confident when they were correct than when
they were incorrect.
The results suggest that declarative knowledge does not develop
independent of procedural knowledge (Annett, 1985) or that declarative
knowledge is inaccessible for subjects with a high level of procedural
knowledge as Anderson (1982) suggests. Results of the study are
discussed within the context of current teaching strategies (Actions
Method; Cayer, 1991) and recommendations are made for future studies.
New York City Board of Education. Division of Curriculum and Instruction.
"The teachers' guide to urban tennis instruction. Pilot program."
1984. ERIC Document No. 283906. Available from ERIC Document Reproduction
Service, 7420 Fullerton Rd., Suite 110, Springfield, VA 22153
or 1-800-443-3742.
This guide was designed for New York City school teachers who
conduct tennis classes for large groups of students while using
limited tennis facilities. Plans for 24 half-hour lessons are
presented with suggestions for equipment, goals, performance objectives,
procedures, activities, and games. Prepared cooperatively with
the New York Junior Tennis League and the United States Tennis
Association.
*Nichols, M.C. "The effects of teacher feedback on student
achievement in tennis serving." MA Thesis. Univ. of Maryland,
1988. Available from Univ. of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742
The purpose of this study was to determine the relationship between
the quantity and quality of teacher feedback and student achievement
on the tennis serve in PE classes. The Ss were 44 male and female
students in beginning tennis classes at the Univ. of Maryland,
Montgomery Community College, and the Good Luck Community Center.
Data on the teacher feedback was monitored by the researcher and
a portable tape recorder. Students completed a performance test
on the serve prior to the instruction and immediately after the
third day of feedback and practice. Information was collected
from students about their previous tennis experience, any practice
occurring outside the course, and their perception of skill improvement.
The results between student form and performance achievement and
the 3 independent variables, initial skill level, practice trials,
and teacher feedback, indicated 1 significant relationship between
Ss initial form and their form achievement. After Ss were categorized
into high, middle, and low groups within each independent variable,
no significant difference between student achievement and both
practice trials and feedback existed. Possible reasons for non-significant
results included: low level of initial serve skill, quality of
serve practice, limited class feedback, a short period of learning,
and environmental differences of the classes.
*Oguchi-Chen, Fumiko. Characteristics of thought processes and
knowledge structures of novice tennis players. MPE Thesis. Univ.
of British Columbia (Canada), 1990. Ann Arbor: UMI, 1992. Order
No. MAMM63789.
The basic purpose of this study was, for pedagogical reasons,
to better understand the development of the novice performers'
knowledge structure by exploring their thought processes in action.
The focus was upon novice tennis players during the game situation.
A description of what the players thought and felt during the
interview in relation to their tennis performance was presented
and the players' thought processes and knowledge structures were
analyzed and interpreted in relation to the complex internal and
external cues reported in particular game situations.
Developmental processes of compilation, composition and proceduralization
of knowledge of action (Anderson, 1982) in the tennis game situation
were discussed. Finally, the implications were discussed for the
designs of instruction of skill performance.
*Poto, Carol Cosgrove. The effect of ball velocity on spatial
accuracy of the tennis volley. MA Thesis. California State Univ.,
Long Beach, 1984. Ann Arbor: UMI, 1985. Order No. 1323880.
The term coincidental timing describes a subject's ability to
initiate and execute a response that coincides in time and/or
space with a moving stimulus object. Research in non-sport settings
has indicated that coincidental timing accuracy improves with
increases in stimulus velocity. This study examined the effect
of ball velocity on spatial accuracy of the tennis volley, to
determine whether improvement in timing associated with stimulus
velocity remains evident in a sport skill requiring both coincidental
timing and aiming. Results indicated that subjects became less
accurate in placing their volley on a target as ball velocity
increased. Improvement in timing was not revealed in target scores.
Determining whether this was due to perceptual or response factors
or another factor such as practice requires further study.
*Ripoll, H., and P. Fleurance. "What does keeping one's eye
on the ball mean?" Ergonomics 31.11:1647 54.
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